This is the list of Schedule III drugs as defined by the United StatesControlled Substances Act at 21 U.S.C.§ 812(c) and 21 C.F.R.1308.13, with modifications through August 22, 2014 (79 FR49961). The following findings are required for drugs to be placed in this schedule:[1]
- The drug or other substance has a potential for abuse less than the drugs or other substances in schedules I and II.
- The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.
- Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to moderate or low physical dependence or high psychological dependence.
The complete list of Schedule III drugs follows. The Administrative Controlled Substances Code Number for each drug is included.
Stimulants[edit]
ACSCN | Drug |
---|---|
1405 | See 21 CFR1308.13(b)(1) |
1228 | Benzphetamine |
1645 | Chlorphentermine |
1647 | Clortermine |
1615 | Phendimetrazine |
Depressants[edit]
ACSCN | Drug |
---|---|
2126 | Amobarbital |
2100 | Any derivative of Barbituric acid |
2510 | Chlorhexadol |
2020 | Embutramide |
2012 | Xyrem (sodium oxybate) oral solution[2] |
2261 | Perampanel[3] |
7285 | Ketamine |
2575 | Methyprylon |
2600 | Sulfondiethylmethane |
2605 | Sulfonethylmethane |
2610 | Sulfonmethane |
7295 | Tiletamine and zolazepam |
7369 | Dronabinol in sesame oil and encapsulated in a soft gelatin capsule |
Others[edit]
ACSCN | Drug |
---|---|
9400 | Nalorphine |
Narcotics[edit]
ACSCN | Drug |
---|---|
9803 | Not more than 1.8 grams of codeine per 100 milliliters or not more than 90 milligrams per dosage unit, with an equal or greater quantity of an isoquinoline alkaloid of opium |
9804 | Not more than 1.8 grams of codeine per 100 milliliters or not more than 90 milligrams per dosage unit, with one or more active, nonnarcotic ingredients in recognized therapeutic amounts |
9807 | Not more than 1.8 grams of dihydrocodeine per 100 milliliters or not more than 90 milligrams per dosage unit, with one or more active nonnarcotic ingredients in recognized therapeutic amounts |
9808 | Not more than 300 milligrams of ethylmorphine per 100 milliliters or not more than 15 milligrams per dosage unit, with one or more active, nonnarcotic ingredients in recognized therapeutic amounts |
9809 | Not more than 500 milligrams of opium per 100 milliliters or per 100 grams or not more than 25 milligrams per dosage unit, with one or more active, nonnarcotic ingredients in recognized therapeutic amounts |
9810 | Not more than 50 milligrams of morphine per 100 milliliters or per 100 grams, with one or more active, nonnarcotic ingredients in recognized therapeutic amounts |
9064 | Buprenorphine |
Steroids[edit]
ACSCN | Drug |
---|---|
4000 | Anabolic steroids |
Hallucinogens[edit]
ACSCN | Drug |
---|---|
7300 | Lysergic acid |
7310 | Lysergic acid amide |
References[edit]
- ^21 U.S.C.§ 812(b)(3) retrieved September 3, 2014
- ^'Xyrem® (sodium oxybate) Oral Solution CIII. Prescribing information. Revised: December 2012'(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 2013-02-03.
- ^'Department of Justice. Drug Enforcement Administration. Schedules of Controlled Substances: Placement of Perampanel into Schedule III'(PDF). Federal Register. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. 78 (204): 62500–62506. October 22, 2013. Retrieved 22 February 2014.
This is the list of Schedule I drugs as defined by the United StatesControlled Substances Act.[1] The following findings are required for drugs to be placed in this schedule:[2]
- The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse.
- The drug or other substance has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.
- There is a lack of accepted safety for use of the drug or other substance under medical supervision.
Except as specifically authorized, it is illegal for any person:
- to manufacture, distribute, or dispense, or possess with intent to manufacture, distribute, or dispense, a controlled substance; or
- to create, distribute, or dispense, or possess with intent to distribute or dispense, a counterfeit substance.[3]
The complete list of Schedule I drugs follows.[1] The Administrative Controlled Substances Code Number for each drug is included.
Opioids[edit]
ACSCN | Drug |
---|---|
9815 | Acetyl-alpha-methylfentanyl (N-[1-(1-methyl-2-phenethyl)-4-piperidinyl]-N-phenylacetamide) |
9601 | Acetylmethadol |
9602 | Allylprodine |
9603 | Alphacetylmethadol (except levo-alphacetylmethadol also known as levo-alpha-acetylmethadol, levomethadyl acetate, or LAAM) |
9604 | Alphameprodine |
9605 | Alphamethadol |
9814 | Alpha-methylfentanyl (N-[1-(alpha-methyl-beta-phenyl)ethyl-4-piperidyl] propionanilide; 1-(1-methyl-2-phenylethyl)-4-(N-propanilido) piperidine) |
9832 | Alpha-methylthiofentanyl (N-[1-methyl-2-(2-thienyl)ethyl-4- piperidinyl]-N-phenylpropanamide) |
9606 | Benzethidine |
9607 | Betacetylmethadol |
9830 | Beta-hydroxyfentanyl (N-[1-(2-hydroxy-2-phenethyl)-4- piperidinyl]-N-phenylpropanamide) |
9831 | Beta-hydroxy-3-methylfentanyl (other name: N-[1-(2-hydroxy-2- phenethyl)-3-methyl-4-piperidinyl]-N-phenylpropanamide |
9608 | Betameprodine |
9609 | Betamethadol |
9611 | Betaprodine |
9612 | Clonitazene |
9613 | Dextromoramide |
9615 | Diampromide |
9616 | Diethylthiambutene |
9168 | Difenoxin |
9617 | Dimenoxadol |
9618 | Dimepheptanol |
9619 | Dimethylthiambutene |
9621 | Dioxaphetyl butyrate |
9622 | Dipipanone |
9623 | Ethylmethylthiambutene |
9624 | Etonitazene |
9625 | Etoxeridine |
9626 | Furethidine |
9627 | Hydroxypethidine |
9628 | Ketobemidone |
9629 | Levomoramide |
9631 | Levophenacylmorphan |
9813 | 3-Methylfentanyl (N-[3-methyl-1-(2-phenylethyl)-4-piperidyl]-N-phenylpropanamide) |
9833 | 3-methylthiofentanyl (N-[(3-methyl-1-(2-thienyl)ethyl-4-piperidinyl]-N-phenylpropanamide) |
9632 | Morpheridine |
9661 | MPPP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-4-propionoxypiperidine) |
9633 | Noracymethadol |
9634 | Norlevorphanol |
9635 | Normethadone |
9636 | Norpipanone |
9812 | Para-fluorofentanyl (N-(4-fluorophenyl)-N-[1-(2-phenethyl)-4-piperidinyl] propanamide |
9663 | PEPAP (1-(-2-phenethyl)-4-phenyl-4-acetoxypiperidine |
9637 | Phenadoxone |
9638 | Phenampromide |
9647 | Phenomorphan |
9641 | Phenoperidine |
9642 | Piritramide |
9643 | Proheptazine |
9644 | Properidine |
9649 | Propiram |
9645 | Racemoramide |
9835 | Thiofentanyl (N-phenyl-N-[1-(2-thienyl)ethyl-4-piperidinyl]-propanamide |
9750 | Tilidine |
9646 | Trimeperidine |
9821 | Acetyl Fentanyl (N-(1-phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)-N-phenylacetamide)[4] |
Opium derivatives[edit]
ACSCN | Drug |
---|---|
9319 | Acetorphine |
9051 | Acetyldihydrocodeine |
9052 | Benzylmorphine |
9070 | Codeine methylbromide |
9053 | Codeine-N-Oxide |
9054 | Cyprenorphine |
9055 | Desomorphine |
9145 | Dihydromorphine |
9335 | Drotebanol |
9056 | Etorphine (except hydrochloride salt) |
9200 | Heroin (diacetylmorphine) |
9301 | Hydromorphinol |
9302 | Methyldesorphine |
9304 | Methyldihydromorphine |
9305 | Morphine methylbromide |
9306 | Morphine methylsulfonate |
9307 | Morphine-N-Oxide |
9308 | Myrophine |
9309 | Nicocodeine |
9312 | Nicomorphine |
9313 | Normorphine |
9314 | Pholcodine |
9315 | Thebacon |
Hallucinogenic or psychedelic substances[edit]
Bcs Class 3 Drugs List
ACSCN | Drug |
---|---|
7249 | Alpha-Ethyltryptamine (αET) |
7391 | 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxy-amphetamine (DOB) |
7392 | 4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B) |
7396 | 2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine (DOA) |
7399 | 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-ethylamphetamine (DOE) |
7348 | 2,5-dimethoxy-4-(n)-propylthiophenethylamine (2C-T-7), its optical isomers, salts and salts of isomers |
7411 | 4-methoxyamphetamine (PMA) |
7401 | 5-methoxy-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MMDA) |
7395 | 4-methyl-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine (DOM; STP) |
7400 | 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA, Sassafrass) |
7405 | 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy, Molly) |
7404 | 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-ethylamphetamine (MDEA; MDE) |
7402 | N-hydroxy-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (N-hydroxy MDA) |
7390 | 3,4,5-trimethoxyamphetamine (TMA) |
7431 | 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-methoxy-3-[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl]indole; 5-MeO-DMT) |
7432 | Alpha-methyltryptamine (αMT) |
7433 | Bufotenine |
7434 | Diethyltryptamine (DET) |
7435 | Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) |
7439 | 5-methoxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine (5-MeO-DIPT), its isomers, salts and salts of isomers |
7260 | Ibogaine |
7315 | Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) |
7360 | Marijuana or hemp, including cannabis resin |
7350 | Marijuana extracts; hemp extracts; cannabinoids[5] |
7381 | Mescaline |
7374 | Parahexyl |
7415 | Peyote |
7482 | N-ethyl-3-piperidyl benzilate |
7484 | N-methyl-3-piperidyl benzilate |
7437 | Psilocybin |
7438 | Psilocin |
7370 | Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) |
7455 | Ethylamine analog of phencyclidine (Eticyclidine; PCE) |
7458 | Pyrrolidine analog of phencyclidine (PCPy) |
7470 | Thiophene analog of phencyclidine (TCP) |
7473 | 1-[1-(2-thienyl)cyclohexyl]pyrrolidine (TCPy) |
1248 | 4-methylmethcathinone (Mephedrone) |
7535 | 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) |
7509 | 2-(2,5-Dimethoxy-4-ethylphenyl)ethanamine (2C-E) |
7508 | 2-(2,5-Dimethoxy-4-methylphenyl)ethanamine (2C-D) |
7519 | 2-(4-Chloro-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)ethanamine (2C-C) |
7518 | 2-(4-Iodo-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)ethanamine (2C-I) |
7385 | 2-[4-(Ethylthio)-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl]ethanamine (2C-T-2) |
7532 | 2-[4-(Isopropylthio)-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl]ethanamine (2C-T-4) |
7517 | 2-(2,5-Dimethoxyphenyl)ethanamine (2C-H) |
7521 | 2-(2,5-Dimethoxy-4-nitro-phenyl)ethanamine (2C-N) |
7524 | 2-(2,5-Dimethoxy-4-(n)-propylphenyl)ethanamine (2C-P) |
7540 | 3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-methylcathinone (Methylone) |
Depressants[edit]
ACSCN | Drug |
---|---|
2010 | gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB; sodium oxybate; sodium oxybutyrate) except formulations in an FDA-approved drug product are Schedule III |
2572 | Mecloqualone |
2565 | Methaqualone |
Stimulants[edit]
ACSCN | Drug |
---|---|
1585 | Aminorex (aminoxaphen; 2-amino-5-phenyl-2- oxazoline; or 4,5-dihydro-5-phenly-2-oxazolamine) |
7493 | N-benzylpiperazine (some other names: BZP; 1-benzylpiperazine), its optical isomers, salts and salts of isomers |
1235 | Cathinone |
1503 | Fenethylline |
1237 | Methcathinone (Some other names: 2-(methylamino)-propiophenone; alpha-(methylamino)propiophenone; 2-(methylamino)-1-phenylpropan-1-one; alpha-N-methylaminopropiophenone; monomethylpropion; ephedrone; N-methylcathinone; methylcathinone; AL-464; AL-422; AL-463 and UR1432), its salts, optical isomers and salts of optical isomers |
1590 | (+/-)cis-4-methylaminorex |
1475 | N-ethylamphetamine |
1480 | N,N-dimethylamphetamine (also known as N,N-alpha-trimethyl-benzeneethanamine; N,N-alpha-trimethylphenethylamine) |
Cannabimimetic agents[edit]
ACSCN | Drug |
---|---|
7297 | 5-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)-2-[(1R,3S)-3-hydroxycyclohexyl]-phenol (CP-47,497) |
7298 | 5-(1,1-dimethyloctyl)-2-[(1R,3S)-3-hydroxycyclohexyl]-phenol (cannabicyclohexanol or CP-47,497 C8-homolog) |
7118 | 1-pentyl-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (JWH-018 and AM678) |
7173 | 1-butyl-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (JWH-073) |
7019 | 1-hexyl-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (JWH-019) |
7200 | 1-[2-(4-morpholinyl)ethyl]-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (JWH-200) |
6250 | 1-pentyl-3-(2-methoxyphenylacetyl)indole (JWH-250) |
7081 | 1-pentyl-3-[1-(4-methoxynaphthoyl)]indole (JWH-081) |
7122 | 1-pentyl-3-(4-methyl-1-naphthoyl)indole (JWH-122) |
7398 | 1-pentyl-3-(4-chloro-1-naphthoyl)indole (JWH-398) |
7201 | 1-(5-fluoropentyl)-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (AM2201) |
7694 | 1-(5-fluoropentyl)-3-(2-iodobenzoyl)indole (AM694) |
7104 | 1-pentyl-3-[(4-methoxy)-benzoyl]indole (SR-19 and RCS-4) |
7008 | 1-cyclohexylethyl-3-(2-methoxyphenylacetyl)indole 7008 (SR-18 and RCS-8) |
7203 | 1-pentyl-3-(2-chlorophenylacetyl)indole (JWH-203) |
Temporary/emergency listings[edit]
These items are listed by the Secretary of Health and Human Services pursuant to 21 CFR 1308.49.[6][7]
ACSCN | Drug |
---|---|
7144 | (1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)(2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropyl)methanone, its optical, positional, and geometric isomers, salts and salts of isomers (UR-144, 1-pentyl-3-(2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropoyl)indole) |
7011 | [1-(5-fluoro-pentyl)-1H-indol-3-yl](2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropyl)methanone, its optical, positional, and geometric isomers, salts and salts of isomers (5-fluoro-UR-144, 5-F-UR-144, XLR-11, 1-(5-fluoro-pentyl)-3-(2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropoyl)indole) |
7048 | N-(1-adamantyl)-1-pentyl-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide, its optical, positional, and geometric isomers, salts and salts of isomers (APINACA, AKB-48) |
7222 | Quinolin-8-yl 1-pentyl-1H-indole-3-carboxylate (QUPIC, PB-22)[8] |
7225 | Quinolin-8-yl 1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indole-3-carboxylate (5-fluoro-PB-22; 5F-PB-22)[8] |
7012 | N-(1-amino-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-(4-fluorobenzyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide (AB-FUBINACA)[8] |
7035 | N-(1-amino-3,3-dimethyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-pentyl-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide (ADB-PINACA)[8] |
7031 | N-(1-amino-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-(cyclohexylmethyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide (AB-CHMINACA)[9] |
7023 | N-(1-amino-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-pentyl-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide (AB-PINACA)[9] |
7024 | [1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indazol-3-yl](naphthalen-1-yl)methanone (THJ-2201)[9] |
7538 | 2-(4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)ethanamine (25I-NBOMe; 2C-I-NBOMe; 25I; Cimbi-5)[10] |
7537 | 2-(4-chloro-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)ethanamine (25C-NBOMe; 2C-C-NBOMe; 25C; Cimbi-82)[10] |
7536 | 2-(4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)ethanamine (25B-NBOMe; 2C-B-NBOMe; 25B; Cimbi-36)[10] |
9547 | 3,4-dichloro-N-[2-(dimethylamino)cyclohexyl]N-methylbenzamide) (U-47700)[11] |
9821 | Acetylfentanyl (N-(1-phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)-N-phenylacetamide)[12] |
9834 | N-(1-Phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)-N-phenylfuran-2-carboxamide (furanyl fentanyl)[13] |
7034 | 2-(1-(5-Fluoropentyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamido)-3,3-dimethylbutanoate (5F-ADB, 5F-MDMB-PINACA)[14] |
7033 | Methyl 2-(1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamido)-3-methylbutanoate (5F-AMB)[14] |
7049 | N-(Adamantan-1-yl)-1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide (5F-APINACA, 5F-AKB48)[14] |
7010 | N-(1-Amino-3,3-dimethyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-(4-fluorobenzyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide (ADB-FUBINACA)[14] |
7042 | Methyl 2-(1-(cyclohexylmethyl)-1H-indole-3-carboxamido)-3,3-dimethylbutanoate (MDMB-CHMICA, MMB-CHMINACA)[14] |
7020 | Methyl 2-(1-(4-fluorobenzyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamido)-3,3-dimethylbutanoate (MDMB-FUBINACA)[14] |
9811 | Acryl fentanyl ((N-(1-phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)-N-phenylacrylamide); Acryloylfentanyl)[15] |
9816 | N-(2-fluorophenyl)-N-(1-phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)propionamide (Ortho-fluorofentanyl or 2-fluorofentanyl)[16] |
9822 | Butyryl Fentanyl (N-(1-phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)-N-phenylbutyramide, N-(1-phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)-N-phenylbutanamide)[17] |
9824 | 4-Fluoroisobutyryl fentanyl ((N-(4-fluorophenyl)-N-(1-phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)isobutyramide) or Para-fluoroisobutyryl fentanyl)[18] |
9825 | 2-methoxy-N-(1-phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)-N-phenylacetamide (Methoxyacetyl fentanyl)[16] |
9836 | Beta-hydroxythiofentanyl (N-[1-[2-hydroxy-2-(thiophen-2-yl)ethyl]piperidin-4-yl]-N-phenylpropionamide, N-[1-[2-hydroxy-2-(2-thienyl)ethyl]-4-piperidinyl]-N-phenylpropanamide)[17] |
9843 | N-(1-phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)-N-phenyltetrahydrofuran-2-carboxamide (Tetrahydrofuranyl fentanyl)[16] |
9845 | (1-phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)-N-phenylcyclopropanecarboxamide (cyclopropyl fentanyl)[19] |
7032 | N-(1-amino-3,3-dimethyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-(cyclohexylmethyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide (MAB-CHMINACA; ADB-CHMINACA)[20] |
9840 | N-(1-phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)-N-phenylpentanamide (valeryl fentanyl)[21] |
9823 | N-(4-fluorophenyl)N-(1-phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)butyramide (para-fluorobutyryl fentanyl)[21] |
9837 | N-(4-methoxyphenyl)-N-(1-phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)butyramide (para-methoxybutyryl fentanyl)[21] |
9826 | N-(4-chlorophenyl)-N-(1-phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)isobutyramide (para-chloroisobutyryl fentanyl)[21] |
9827 | N-(1-phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)-N-phenylisobutyramide (isobutyryl fentanyl)[21] |
9847 | N-(1-phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)-N-phenylcyclopentanecarboxamide (cyclopentyl fentanyl)[21] |
9838 | N-(2-fluorophenyl)-2-methoxy-N-(1-phenethylpiperidin-4-yl)acetamide (ocfentanil)[21] |
9850 | Fentanyl-related substances, their isomers, esters, ethers, salts and salts of isomers, esters and ethers[22] |
References[edit]
- ^ ab21 CFR1308.11 (CSA Sched I) with changes through 77 FR64032 (Oct 18, 2012). Retrieved September 6, 2013.
- ^21 U.S.C.§ 812(b)(1)United States Code via Cornell University's Legal Information Institute. Retrieved on 2007-10-02.
- ^Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) (22 Jan 2002). 'Title 21 — Food and Drugs Chapter 13 - Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Subchapter I — Control and Enforcement Part D — Offenses and Penalties: Sec. 841. Prohibited Acts A(a)'. Retrieved 23 Oct 2009.
- ^Drug Enforcement Administration, Department of Justice (2017). 'Schedules of Controlled Substances: Placement of Acetyl Fentanyl into Schedule I. Final order'. Federal Register. 82 (108): 26349–51. PMID28591974.
- ^https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2016-12-14/pdf/2016-29941.pdf
- ^Code of Federal Regulations, 2012-04-01
- ^The first 8 items in the temporary section of the schedule shown on the DEA website are not included here because they are duplicates of entries in the tables above. Presumably, this is because they were made permanent and copied there at some point, but inadvertently not deleted from this temporary listing section.
- ^ abcdDrug Enforcement Administration, Department of Justice (Feb 10, 2014). 'Schedules of controlled substances: temporary placement of four synthetic cannabinoids into Schedule I. Final order'. Fed. Regist. 79 (27): 7577–7582. PMID24605391.
- ^ abcDrug Enforcement Administration, Department of Justice (2015). 'Schedules of controlled substances: Temporary placement of three synthetic cannabinoids into schedule I. Final order'. Federal Register. 80 (20): 5042–7. PMID25730924.
- ^ abcDrug Enforcement Administration (2015). 'Schedules of Controlled Substances: Extension of Temporary Placement of Three Synthetic Phenethylamines in Schedule I. Final order'. Fed. Regist. 80 (219): 70657–9. PMID26567439.
- ^'DEA Schedules Deadly Synthetic Drug U-47700'. November 10, 2016.
- ^Drug Enforcement Administration (2015). 'Schedules of Controlled Substances: Temporary Placement of Acetyl Fentanyl Into Schedule I. Final order'. Fed. Regist. 80 (137): 42381–5. PMID26189217.
- ^Drug Enforcement Administration, Department of Justice (2016). 'Schedules of Controlled Substances: Temporary Placement of Furanyl Fentanyl Into Schedule I. Final order'. Fed. Regist. 81 (229): 85873–7. PMID27906535.
- ^ abcdef'Schedules of Controlled Substances: Temporary Placement of Six Synthetic Cannabinoids (5F-ADB, 5F-AMB, 5F-APINACA, ADB-FUBINACA, MDMB-CHMICA and MDMB-FUBINACA) Into Schedule I'. Drug Enforcement Administration.
- ^Drug Enforcement Administration, Department of Justice (2017). 'Schedules of Controlled Substances: Temporary Placement of Acryl Fentanyl into Schedule I. Temporary scheduling order'. Federal Register. 82 (134): 32453–7. PMID28715161.
- ^ abcDrug Enforcement Administration, Department of Justice (2017). 'Schedules of Controlled Substances: Temporary Placement of ortho-Fluorofentanyl, Tetrahydrofuranyl Fentanyl, and Methoxyacetyl Fentanyl into Schedule I. Temporary amendment; temporary scheduling order'. Federal Register. 82 (206): 49504–8. PMID29091366.
- ^ abDrug Enforcement Administration, Department of Justice (2016). 'Schedules of Controlled Substances: Temporary Placement of Butyryl Fentanyl and Beta-Hydroxythiofentanyl into Schedule I. Final order'. Federal Register. 81 (92): 29492–6. PMID27192733.
- ^Drug Enforcement Administration, Department of Justice (2017). 'Schedules of Controlled Substances: Temporary Placement of 4-Fluoroisobutyryl Fentanyl into Schedule I. Temporary scheduling order'. Federal Register. 82 (84): 20544–8. PMID28497944.
- ^Drug Enforcement Administration, Department of Justice (2018). 'Schedules of Controlled Substances: Temporary Placement of Cyclopropyl Fentanyl in Schedule I. Temporary amendment; temporary scheduling order'. Federal Register. 83 (3): 469–72. PMID29319947.
- ^Drug Enforcement Administration, Department of Justice (2018). 'Schedules of Controlled Substances: Extension of Temporary Placement of MAB–CHMINACA in Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act. Temporary rule; temporary scheduling order; extension'. Federal Register. 83 (20): 4411–2. PMID29461023.
- ^ abcdefgDrug Enforcement Administration, Department of Justice (2018). 'Schedules of Controlled Substances: Temporary Placement of Seven Fentanyl-Related Substances in Schedule I. Temporary amendment; temporary scheduling order'. Federal Register. 83 (22): 4580–5. PMID29932604.
- ^Drug Enforecement Administration, Department of Justice (2018). 'Schedules of Controlled Substances:Temporary Placement of Fentanyl-Related Substances in Schedule I. Temporary amendment; temporary scheduling order'. Federal Register. 83 (25): 5188–92. PMID29932611.
The U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration lists marijuana in the most restrictive of five classes that the agency uses to regulate dangerous drugs. Marijuana is classified as a Schedule I substance, which is the ranking reserved for drugs with the greatest potential for abuse and with no medicinal value. Heroin, ecstasy and LSD are listed in that category, too, while cocaine and methamphetamine rank one level lower than marijuana, as Schedule II.
Almost since marijuana was first classified this way, advocates have been fighting to “reschedule” it to a lower tier. They argue that the Schedule I classification isn’t justified on scientific grounds. Marijuana is not considered highly addictive or dangerous except possibly for adolescents who smoke it while their brains are still forming. And the plant seems to hold medical promise in a number of areas -- one drug that is derived from a compound found in marijuana has already been approved to treat nausea in cancer patients.
The strict Schedule I label is problematic, advocates say, because it incurs the harshest federal penalties for those who are caught with it and adds bureaucratic hurdles for researchers who want study it. “I see dozens of cases a month that are impacted by this classification,” says Michael Cindrich, an attorney in San Diego, California, who specializes in criminal cases related to medical marijuana. Meanwhile, the significance of the designation has blurred following more states legalizing recreational marijuana and Congress ordering the Department of Justice to stop pursuing criminal cases against growers or users of medical marijuana.
A brief history of marijuana
So why is marijuana a Schedule I drug in the first place? It all dates back to 1970, when Congress passed the Controlled Substance Act, which was signed by President Richard Nixon. The act established the schedules by which drugs would be classified and temporarily listed marijuana as a Schedule I substance, subject to review. The administration then formed a commission to study marijuana and advise the administration on where it should be permanently placed. “When Nixon created the Controlled Substances Act in the '70s, he didn't really know where to place marijuana on the list of schedules,” says Kris Hermes, media specialist with an advocacy group called Americans for Safe Access.
Starting two years after the Controlled Substance Act, the National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse issued a series of reports (read them here: report one, report two) on the state of marijuana in the U.S. The commission acknowledged that marijuana was less a serious threat to public health than a sensitive social issue and recommended changes to federal law that would permit citizens to possess a small amount of it at a time, while still maintaining that the drug should not be legalized.
The commission's approach to drug policy didn’t resonate with many Americans or politicians at that time, who were far more concerned about the potential societal ills that could strike if marijuana use was left unfettered -- an attitude that Cindrich says was partially based in racism. “At that time, the majority of marijuana users were black and Hispanic so it was a way for the U.S. government to keep tabs on the minorities that were living and working in the country,” he says.
The drug ultimately remained in the highest tier because of these fears, which were perhaps most evident at a senate hearing in 1974 with a subcommittee led by Sen. James Eastland, D-Miss. In his testimony, Eastland recalled a series of protests at University of California, Berkeley in the 1960s and warned, “If the cannabis epidemic continues to spread at the rate of the post-Berkeley period, we may find ourselves saddled with a large population of semi-zombies – of young people acutely afflicted by the amotivational syndrome.” Some say that the opposition of Eastland and his subcommittee quashed any chance that the drug would be downgraded to Schedule II or III. “It's all politics and then we got stuck in the ‘Just Say No’ era which lasted 20-some years,” says Paul Loney, an attorney in Oregon who specializes in marijuana legal issues.
Support for 'rescheduling'
Around the same time that the commission was issuing its report, a group known as the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws filed the first petition asking the DEA to place marijuana in a lower level of drugs. That petition was rejected in court after a 22-year battle. Another petition was brought forth in 2002 by the Coalition to Reschedule Cannabis, but was also declined by the DEA. An appeal of that decision was dismissed on the grounds that there was no sufficient medical use shown in phase two and three clinical trials for marijuana. Since then, the FDA has conducted two analyses of the status of marijuana for the DEA and suggested it remain a Schedule I drug, Bloomberg reports.
In order to change marijuana’s classification, today’s advocates can work through one of several routes. They could file another petition with the DEA, despite the repeated failures of the past. They could also hope for Congress to pass a bill similar to one that was introduced last year that would order a reclassification. Hermes says a new bill for this legislature is in the works and will be introduced in the coming months. “We're turning our attention to legislation in Congress since they've shown a willingness to grapple with this issue,” he says. Another option would be to hope President Obama takes executive action to reclassify the drug, though his administration has stated that it would prefer to wait for Congress to lead that effort.
Advocates say that pressure from a pending decision by a federal judge in California may help, if the judge rules that the penalties for marijuana offenses should be less harsh than those given for typical violations of a drug with Schedule I classification. A positive ruling for the medicinal marijuana growers in that case could sway other courts to change their tune toward the drug in the future, and put further pressure on the DEA to reexamine the drug’s classification. However, 'That's a slow process,' Loney says, 'much slower than an agency review can be, which is much slower than the administration could come out to say ‘Hey, we're rescheduling this from a Schedule I to a Schedule II.'